Methods for measuring the metabolism of neurally derived biomolecules in vivo

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to methods of diagnosing, monitoring, and assessing treatment effects for neurological and neurodegenerative diseases and disorders, such as Alzheimer&#39;s Disease, early in the course of clinical disease or prior to the onset of brain damage and clinical symptoms. Methods of measuring the in vivo metabolism of biomolecules produced in the CNS in a subject are provided.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No.13/005,233, filed Jan. 12, 2011, which is itself a divisional of U.S.application Ser. No. 11/910,463, filed Oct. 19, 2007, which issued asU.S. Pat. No. 7,892,845 on Feb. 22, 2011, which is a US National of PCTApplication PCT/US2006/012200, filed Apr. 4, 2006, which claims thepriority of US provisional application No. 60/668,634, filed Apr. 6,2005, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF FEDERAL RESEARCH SUPPORT

The present invention was made, at least in part, with governmentsupport under grants P50-AG05681, M01 RR00036, RR000954, and DK056341awarded by the National Institutes of Health. Accordingly, the UnitedStates Government has certain rights in this invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to methods for the diagnosis and treatment ofneurological and neurodegenerative diseases, disorders, and associatedprocesses. The invention also relates to a method for measuring themetabolism of central nervous system derived biomolecules in a subjectin vivo.

BACKGROUND OF INVENTION Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia and is anincreasing public health problem. It is currently estimated to afflict 5million people in the United States, with an expected increase to 13million by the year 2050 (Herbert et al 2001, Alzheimer Dis. Assoc.Disord. 15(4): 169-173). AD, like other central nervous system (CNS)degenerative diseases, is characterized by disturbances in proteinproduction, accumulation, and clearance. In AD, dysregulation in themetabolism of the protein, amyloid-beta (Aβ), is indicated by a massivebuildup of this protein in the brains of those with the disease. ADleads to loss of memory, cognitive function, and ultimatelyindependence. It takes a heavy personal and financial toll on thepatient and the family. Because of the severity and increasingprevalence of this disease in the population, it is urgent that bettertreatments be developed.

Currently, there are some medications that modify symptoms, however,there are no disease-modifying treatments. Disease-modifying treatmentswill likely be most effective when given before the onset of permanentbrain damage. However, by the time clinical diagnosis of AD is made,extensive neuronal loss has already occurred (Price et al. 2001, Arch.Neurol. 58(9): 1395-1402). Therefore, a way to identify those at risk ofdeveloping AD would be most helpful in preventing or delaying the onsetof AD. Currently, there are no means of identifying the pathophysiologicchanges that occur in AD before the onset of clinical symptoms or ofeffectively measuring the effects of treatments that may prevent theonset or slow the progression of the disease.

A need exists, therefore, for a sensitive, accurate, and reproduciblemethod for measuring the in vivo metabolism of biomolecules in the CNS.In particular, a method is needed for measuring the in vivo fractionalsynthesis rate and clearance rate of proteins associated with aneurodegenerative disease, e.g., the metabolism of Aβ in AD.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

An aspect of the current invention is the provision of means fordiagnosing and monitoring the advent and progress of neurological andneurodegenerative diseases, such as AD, prior to the onset of braindamage and clinical symptoms. Another aspect of the invention providesmeans for monitoring the effects of the treatment of neurological andneurodegenerative diseases, such as AD.

A further aspect of the invention provides methods for measuring the invivo metabolism (e.g., the rate of synthesis, the rate of clearance) ofneurally derived biomolecules.

An additional aspect of the invention encompasses kits for measuring thein vivo metabolism of neurally derived proteins in a subject, wherebythe metabolism of the protein may be used as a predictor of aneurological or a neurodegenerative disease, an monitor of theprogression of the disease, or an indicator in the effectiveness of atreatment for the disease.

Other aspects and iterations of the invention are described in moredetail herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts a schematic illustrating the processing of amyloidprecursor protein (APP) into amyloid-β (Aβ) within a cell. Leucines (L),one of the possible labeling sites, are indicated in black. The aminoacid sequence of Aβ (SEQ ID NO:1) is shown at the bottom, with thetrypsin digest sites indicated to demonstrate the fragments that wereanalyzed by mass spectrometry.

FIG. 2 depicts a mass spectrometer plot showing the separation of theamyloid-β peptides. Aβ peptides were immunoprecipitated from human CSFwith the central domain anti-Aβ antibody, m266, and the eluted Aβ wassubjected to mass spectrometry. Mass spectral peaks are labeled withtheir corresponding peptide variants; Aβ₃₈, Aβ₃₉, Aβ₄₀, and Aβ₄₂.

FIG. 3 presents mass spectrometer plots illustrating the shift inmolecular weight of the ¹³C-labeled Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ fragment. In panel A,unlabeled media from a human neuroglioma cell line producing Aβ in vitrowas collected and immunoprecipitated. Amyloid-beta peptides were thencleaved with trypsin at sites 5, 16, and 28 (see FIG. 1) producing thetwo fragment envelopes shown at masses 1325 and 1336. Note the two massenvelopes of Aβ fragments Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ (1325) and Aβ₆₋₁₆ (1336) showing thestatistical distribution of natural isotopes in unlabeled Aβ. Also, notethere is no signal at mass of 1331, where the labeled signal would be.In panel B, media from human neuroglioma cells cultured for 24 hours inthe presence of ¹³C₆-leucine was collected and Aβ was immunoprecipitatedand cleaved with trypsin to produce the fragment envelopes shown atmasses 1325, 1331, and 1336. Note the shift of mass (arrow) of Aβ₁₇₋₂₈from 1325 to 1331 that demonstrates the ¹³C₆-leucine labeled Aβ fragment(Aβ*₁₇₋₂₈). Aβ₆₋₁₆ does not contain a leucine, and so is not labeled ormass shifted. A minor amount of Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ remains unlabeled.

FIG. 4 depicts a graph showing a standard curve of the labeling of Aβ invitro. A sample of labeled cultured media was serially diluted togenerate a standard curve to test the linearity and variability of themeasurement technique. The Aβ was precipitated from the media, trypsindigested, and the fragments were analyzed on a Liquid ChromatographyElectro-Spray Injection (LC-ESI) mass spectrometer and the tandem massspectra ions were quantitated using custom written software. Thesoftware summed both the labeled and the unlabeled tandem ions andcalculated the ratio of labeled to total Aβ. The percent labeled Aβversus the predicted value is shown with a linear regression line. Notethe good linear fit, in addition to the low deviation.

FIG. 5 depicts a schematic illustrating the in vivo labeling protocol.Shown is a diagram of participant with an intravenous catheter in eitherantecubital vein and a lumbar catheter in the L3-4 intrathecal space. Inone IV, ¹³C₆-labeled leucine was infused at a rate of 1.8 to 2.5mg/kg/hr for 9 or 12 hours, after an initial bolus of 2 mg/kg. Twelve mlof plasma was obtained through the other IV every hour for the first 16hours and every other hour thereafter as depicted. Six ml of CSF wasobtained through the lumbar catheter every hour. Each sample was thenprocessed by immunoprecipitation of Aβ, trypsin digestion, and LC-ESI-MSanalysis to determine the percent of labeled Aβ at each time point.

FIG. 6 depicts mass spectrometer plots demonstrating the MS/MS ions oflabeled and unlabeled amyloid-β. Human CSF was collected afterintravenous infusion of ¹³C₆-leucine. Representative spectra ofunlabeled (a) and labeled (b) Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ (LVFFAEDVGSNK (SEQ ID NO:2)) areshown. The spectra were obtained using MS/MS analysis of unlabeledparent ion Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ at m/z 663.3 or labeled parent ion Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ at m/z666.3. Note the MS/MS ions containing ¹³C-leucine (Aβ₁₇) are massshifted by 6 Daltons demonstrating the labeled leucine. The Aβ ionswithout leucine at position 17 are not labeled and are not mass shiftedby 6 Daltons.

FIG. 7 depicts a graph showing a standard curve of the labeling of Aβ invivo. A sample of labeled human CSF was serially diluted with unlabeledhuman CSF to generate a standard curve to quantify the accuracy andprecision of the measurement technique for in vivo labeled Aβ in humanCSF. The Aβ was precipitated from the CSF, trypsin digested, and the Aβfragments were analyzed on a LC-ESI mass spectrometer and the tandemmass spectra ions were quantitated using custom written software. Thesoftware summed both the labeled and the unlabeled tandem ions andcalculated the ratio of labeled to total Aβ. The predicted percentlabeled Aβ versus the measured value is shown with a linear regressionline. Note the good linear fit.

FIG. 8 depicts a graph illustrating the Aβ metabolism curves of threeparticipants. Each participant started the labeled leucine infusion attime zero and continued for 9 (squares) or 12 hours (triangles andcircles). Hourly samples of CSF were obtained through a lumbar catheter.Aβ was immunoprecipitated and trypsin digested. The percent of labeledAβ was determined by measuring labeled and unlabeled tandem mass spectraions on a LC-ESI mass spectrometer as described above.

FIG. 9 depicts a graph illustrating the ratio of labeled leucine in theCSF and blood from a participant during a 36-hour study. The CSF andplasma labeled leucine levels reached near steady state within an hourof the initial bolus of 2 mg/kg. After the infusion of labeled leucineinto the bloodstream was stopped at 9 hours, there was an exponentialdecay in labeled leucine levels. The plasma level of labeled leucine wasabout 4% higher than the CSF labeled leucine levels during the infusionperiod.

FIG. 10 depicts a graph illustrating the mean ratio of labeled tounlabeled Aβ in CSF from 6 participants over 36 hours. The labeled tounlabeled β metabolism curves were averaged and the mean for each timepoint is shown +/−SEM. Each participant was labeled for 9 or 12 hours,while sampling occurred hourly from 0 to 12, 24, or 36 hours. There wasno detectable incorporation of label during the first 4 hours, followedby an increase in percent labeled Aβ that plateaued to near steady statelabeled leucine levels (˜10%) before decreasing over the last 12 hoursof the study.

FIG. 11 depicts graphs showing the Aβ metabolism curves from 3participants with 9-hour label infusion and 36 hour sampling. Panels A-Cdepict calculation of the fractional synthesis rate (FSR), which wascalculated by the slope of increasing labeled Aβ divided by thepredicted steady state value. The predicted steady state value wasestimated as the average CSF labeled leucine measured during labeling.The slope was defined to start after the 4 hours lag time when there wasno increase in labeled Aβ and ending 9 hours later (solid diamonds).Panels D-F show the calculation of the fractional clearance rate (FCR),which was calculated by the slope of the natural logarithm of percentlabeled Aβ from hours 24 to 36 (solid diamonds).

FIG. 12 depicts a graph illustrating the average FSR and FCR. Theaverage Aβ FSR of 6 participants and the average Aβ FCR of 3participants is shown with standard deviation.

FIG. 13 depicts an illustration of the protocol for quantifying ApoEfrom human CSF. ApoE from human CSF or astrocyte media is bound to ananti-ApoE antibody (WUE4) coupled to sepharose beads, and digested withtrypsin. The supernatant containing ApoE peptides is analyzed by LC-MS.

FIG. 14 depicts a graph showing the standard curve of ¹³C-Leu-labeledApoE peptide SWFEPLVEDMQR (SEQ ID NO:3). Stably-transfected mouseastrocytes expressing human ApoE were labeled with ¹³C₆-Leu. ApoE wasaffinity purified from cell media, digested with trypsin, and analyzedby nanoLC tandem MS.

FIG. 15 depicts a graph showing the incorporation of ¹³C-Leu intoCNS-derived ApoE. ApoE was affinity purified from CSF of a young normalcontrol participant infused with ¹³C₆-Leu, and analyzed by nanoLC tandemMS. Fractional synthesis rate (FSR) was calculated using the slope ofthe linear regression divided by the ¹³C-Leu precursor enrichment in CSF(¹³C-Leu=9.86%).

FIG. 16 depicts a graph showing the incorporation of ¹³C-Leu and ¹³C-Pheinto CNS-derived ApoE. ApoE was affinity purified from CSF of a youngnormal control participant infused with ¹³C₆-Leu and ¹³C₆-Phe, andanalyzed by nanoLC tandem MS. Fractional synthesis rate (FSR) wascalculated using the slope of the linear regression divided by the¹³C-Leu or ¹³C-Phe precursor enrichment in CSF (¹³C₆-Leu=11.5% or¹³C₆-Phe=22.3%).

FIG. 17 depicts a graph showing the percent labeled protein over time.Soluble APP has a much slower production and clearance rate compared toAβ, as indicated by the slower rise in plateau and clearance of labeledsAPP. Open circles=Aβ, Black triangles=soluble amyloid precursor protein(sAPP).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The present invention relates to methods for the early diagnosis,prognosis, and assessment of treatment effectiveness of neurological andneurodegenerative diseases, disorders, and processes in a subject.Specifically, the invention provides a method for diagnosis prior to andafter the onset of clinical symptoms associated with neural damage bydetermining the synthesis and clearance rates of CNS derivedbiomolecules. It also provides a method to assess whether a treatment isaffecting the production or clearance rate of biomolecules in the CNSrelevant to neurological and neurodegenerative diseases. The usefulnessof this invention will be evident to those of skill in the art in thatearly diagnosis provides the opportunity for early treatment and,possibly, the prevention of significant neural damage in thoseafflicted. This invention provides a method for monitoring theeffectiveness of disease-modifying therapies or for the screening oftherapies likely to have a significant effect directly in humans. Forexample, one may determine if a treatment alters the synthesis orclearance rate of a biomolecule derived from the CNS. Ultimately, thismethod may provide a predictive test for the advent of neurological andneurodegenerative diseases, provide a method for more accuratediagnosis, and a means to monitor the progression of such diseases.

I. Methods for Monitoring the In Vivo Metabolism of Neurally DerivedBiomolecules

The current invention provides methods for measuring the in vivometabolism of neurally derived biomolecules. By using this method, oneskilled in the art may be able to study possible changes in themetabolism (synthesis and clearance) of a relevant neurally derivedbiomolecule implicated in a particular disease state. In addition, theinvention permits the measurement of the pharmacodynamic effects ofdisease-modifying therapeutics in a subject.

In particular, this invention provides a method to label a biomoleculeas it is synthesized in the central nervous system in vivo; to collect abiological sample containing labeled and unlabeled biomolecules; and ameans to measure the labeling of the biomolecule over time. Thesemeasurements may be used to calculate metabolic parameters, such as thesynthesis and clearance rates within the CNS, as well as others.

(a) Degenerative Diseases

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a debilitating disease characterized byaccumulation of amyloid plaques in the central nervous system (CNS)resulting from increased production, decreased clearance, or both ofamyloid-β (Aβ) protein. The inventors have developed a method formeasuring the in vivo metabolism of Aβ in a human by measuring the invivo synthesis and clearance rates of Aβ in the cerebrospinal fluid(CSF) or plasma. The in vivo synthesis and clearance rates of Aβ thenmay be used to assess whether a subject has an alteration in Aβsynthesis or clearance as compared to a control group. Such a comparisonmay allow for the diagnosis of AD early in its course, i.e., prior tothe onset of clinical symptoms and significant neural damage. Inaddition, the present invention provides means to determine whetherapolipoprotein E (ApoE) causes a change in Aβ metabolism. Thisdetermination may provide new insights about why particular ApoEgenotypes are a risk factor for AD.

Those of skill in the art will appreciate that, while AD is theexemplary disease that may be diagnosed or monitored by the invention,the invention is not limited to AD. It is envisioned that the method ofthe invention may be used in the diagnosis and assessment of treatmentefficacy of several neurological and neurodegenerative diseases,disorders, or processes including, but not limited to, Parkinson'sDisease, stroke, frontal temporal dementias (FTDs), Huntington'sDisease, progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), corticobasal degeneration(CBD), aging-related disorders and dementias, Multiple Sclerosis, PrionDiseases (e.g. Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, bovine spongiformencephalopathy or Mad Cow Disease, and scrapie), Lewy Body Disease, andAmyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS or Lou Gehrig's Disease). It is alsoenvisioned that the method of the invention may be used to study thenormal physiology, metabolism, and function of the CNS.

Neurological and neurodegenerative diseases are most common in subjectsof advanced age. For example, 10% of people over the age of 65 have AD,while about 50% of people over age 85 are afflicted with AD. Because ofthe prevalence of neurological and neurodegenerative diseases among theaging human population and the health care costs associated with thesediseases, it is envisioned that the in vivo metabolism of biomoleculeswill be measured in a human subject, and in particular, in a humansubject with advanced age. Alternatively, the in vivo metabolism ofbiomolecules may be measured in other mammalian subjects. In anotherembodiment, the subject is a companion animal such as a dog or cat. Inanother alternative embodiment, the subject is a livestock animal suchas a cow, pig, horse, sheep or goat. In yet another alternativeembodiment, the subject is a zoo animal. In another embodiment, thesubject is a research animal such as a non-human primate or a rodent.

(b) Biomolecule

The present invention provides a method for measuring the metabolism ofa biomolecule derived from the CNS in vivo. The biomolecule may be aprotein, a lipid, a nucleic acid, or a carbohydrate. The possiblebiomolecules are only limited by the ability to label them during invivo synthesis and collect a sample from which their metabolism may bemeasured. In a preferred embodiment, the biomolecule is a proteinsynthesized in the CNS. For example, the protein to be measured may be,but is not limited to, amyloid-β (Aβ) and its variants, soluble amyloidprecursor protein (APP), apolipoprotein E (isoforms 2, 3, or 4),apolipoprotein J (also called clusterin), Tau (another proteinassociated with AD), glial fibrillary acidic protein, alpha-2macroglobulin, synuclein, S100B, Myelin Basic Protein (implicated inmultiple sclerosis), prions, interleukins, TDP-43, superoxidedismutase-1, huntingtin, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF). Additionalbiomolecules that may be targeted include products of, or proteins orpeptides that interact with GABAergic neurons, noradrenergic neurons,histaminergic neurons, seratonergic neurons, dopaminergic neurons,cholinergic neurons, and glutaminergic neurons.

In an exemplary embodiment, the protein whose in vivo metabolism ismeasured may be amyloid-beta (Aβ) protein. In a further embodiment,other variants of Aβ (e.g., 40, 42, 38 or others) may be measured. Inyet a further embodiment, digestion products of Aβ (e.g., Aβ₆₋₁₆,Aβ₁₇₋₂₈) may be measured.

(c) Labeled Moiety

Several different moieties may be used to label the biomolecule ofinterest. Generally speaking, the two types of labeling moietiestypically utilized in the method of the invention are radioactiveisotopes and non-radioactive (stable) isotopes. In a preferredembodiment, non-radioactive isotopes may be used and measured by massspectrometry. Preferred stable isotopes include deuterium ² _(H,) ¹³C,¹⁵N, ^(17 or 18)O, ^(33, 34, or 36)S, but it is recognized that a numberof other stable isotope that change the mass of an atom by more or lessneutrons than is seen in the prevalent native form would also beeffective. A suitable label generally will change the mass of thebiomolecule under study such that it can be detected in a massspectrometer. In one embodiment, the biomolecule to be measured is aprotein, and the labeled moiety is an amino acid comprising anon-radioactive isotope (e.g., ¹³C). In another embodiment, thebiomolecule to be measured is a nucleic acid, and the labeled moiety isa nucleoside triphosphate comprising a non-radioactive isotope (e.g.,¹⁵N). Alternatively, a radioactive isotope may be used, and the labeledbiomolecules may be measured with a scintillation counter rather than amass spectrometer. One or more labeled moieties may be usedsimultaneously or in sequence.

In a preferred embodiment, when the method is employed to measure themetabolism of a protein, the labeled moiety typically will be an aminoacid. Those of skill in the art will appreciate that several amino acidsmay be used to provide the label of a biomolecule. Generally, the choiceof amino acid is based on a variety of factors such as: (1) The aminoacid generally is present in at least one residue of the protein orpeptide of interest. (2) The amino acid is generally able to quicklyreach the site of protein synthesis and rapidly equilibrate across theblood-brain barrier. Leucine is a preferred amino acid to label proteinsthat are synthesized in the CNS, as demonstrated in Examples 1 and 2.(3) The amino acid ideally may be an essential amino acid (not producedby the body), so that a higher percent of labeling may be achieved.Non-essential amino acids may also be used; however, measurements willlikely be less accurate. (4) The amino acid label generally does notinfluence the metabolism of the protein of interest (e.g., very largedoses of leucine may affect muscle metabolism). And (5) availability ofthe desired amino acid (i.e., some amino acids are much more expensiveor harder to manufacture than others). In one embodiment,¹³C₆-phenylalanine, which contains six ¹³C atoms, is used to label aneurally derived protein. In a preferred embodiment, ¹³C₆-leucine isused to label a neurally derived protein. In an exemplary embodiment,¹³C₆-leucine is used to label amyloid-β.

There are numerous commercial sources of labeled amino acids, bothnon-radioactive isotopes and radioactive isotopes. Generally, thelabeled amino acids may be produced either biologically orsynthetically. Biologically produced amino acids may be obtained from anorganism (e.g., kelp/seaweed) grown in an enriched mixture of ¹³C, ¹⁵N,or another isotope that is incorporated into amino acids as the organismproduces proteins. The amino acids are then separated and purified.Alternatively, amino acids may be made with known synthetic chemicalprocesses.

(d) Administration of the Labeled Moiety

The labeled moiety may be administered to a subject by several methods.Suitable methods of administration include intravenously,intra-arterially, subcutaneously, intraperitoneally, intramuscularly, ororally. In a preferred embodiment, the labeled moiety is a labeled aminoacid, and the labeled amino acid is administered by intravenousinfusion. In another embodiment, labeled amino acids may be orallyingested.

The labeled moiety may be administered slowly over a period of time oras a large single dose depending upon the type of analysis chosen (e.g.,steady state or bolus/chase). To achieve steady-state levels of thelabeled biomolecule, the labeling time generally should be of sufficientduration so that the labeled biomolecule may be reliably quantified. Inone embodiment, the labeled moiety is labeled leucine and the labeledleucine is administered intravenously for nine hours. In anotherembodiment, the labeled leucine is administered intravenously for 12hours.

Those of skill in the art will appreciate that the amount (or dose) ofthe labeled moiety can and will vary. Generally, the amount is dependenton (and estimated by) the following factors. (1) The type of analysisdesired. For example, to achieve a steady state of about 15% labeledleucine in plasma requires about 2 mg/kg/hr over 9 hr after an initialbolus of 2 mg/kg over 10 min. In contrast, if no steady state isrequired, a large bolus of labeled leucine (e.g., 1 or 5 grams oflabeled leucine) may be given initially. (2) The protein under analysis.For example, if the protein is being produced rapidly, then lesslabeling time may be needed and less label may be needed—perhaps aslittle as 0.5 mg/kg over 1 hour. However, most proteins have half-livesof hours to days and, so more likely, a continuous infusion for 4, 9 or12 hours may be used at 0.5 mg/kg to 4 mg/kg. And (3) the sensitivity ofdetection of the label. For example, as the sensitivity of labeldetection increases, the amount of label that is needed may decrease.

Those of skill in the art will appreciate that more than one label maybe used in a single subject. This would allow multiple labeling of thesame biomolecule and may provide information on the production orclearance of that biomolecule at different times. For example, a firstlabel may be given to subject over an initial time period, followed by apharmacologic agent (drug), and then a second label may be administered.In general, analysis of the samples obtained from this subject wouldprovide a measurement of metabolism before AND after drugadministration, directly measuring the pharmacodynamic effect of thedrug in the same subject.

Alternatively, multiple labels may be used at the same time to increaselabeling of the biomolecule, as well as obtain labeling of a broaderrange of biomolecules.

(e) Biological Sample

The method of the invention provides that a biological sample beobtained from a subject so that the in vivo metabolism of the labeledbiomolecule may be determined. Suitable biological samples include, butare not limited to, cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), blood plasma, bloodserum, urine, saliva, perspiration, and tears. In one embodiment of theinvention, biological samples are taken from the CSF. In an alternateembodiment, biological samples are collected from the urine. In apreferred embodiment, biological samples are collected from the blood.

Cerebrospinal fluid may be obtained by lumbar puncture with or withoutan indwelling CSF catheter (a catheter is preferred if multiplecollections are made over time). Blood may be collected by veni-puncturewith or without an intravenous catheter. Urine may be collected bysimple urine collection or more accurately with a catheter. Saliva andtears may be collected by direct collection using standard goodmanufacturing practice (GMP) methods.

In general when the biomolecule under study is a protein, the inventionprovides that a first biological sample be taken from the subject priorto administration of the label to provide a baseline for the subject.After administration of the labeled amino acid or protein, one or moresamples generally would be taken from the subject. As will beappreciated by those of skill in the art, the number of samples and whenthey would be taken generally will depend upon a number of factors suchas: the type of analysis, type of administration, the protein ofinterest, the rate of metabolism, the type of detection, etc.

In one embodiment, the biomolecule is a protein and samples of blood andCSF are taken hourly for 36 hours. Alternatively, samples may be takenevery other hour or even less frequently. In general, biological samplesobtained during the first 12 hours of sampling (i.e., 12 hrs after thestart of labeling) may be used to determine the rate of synthesis of theprotein, and biological samples taken during the final 12 hours ofsampling (i.e., 24-36 hrs after the start of labeling) may be used todetermine the clearance rate of the protein. In another alternative, onesample may be taken after labeling for a period of time, such as 12hours, to estimate the synthesis rate, but this may be less accuratethan multiple samples. In yet a further alternative, samples may betaken from an hour to days or even weeks apart depending upon theprotein's synthesis and clearance rate.

(f) Detection

The present invention provides that detection of the amount of labeledbiomolecule and the amount of unlabeled biomolecule in the biologicalsamples may be used to determine the ratio of labeled biomolecule tounlabeled biomolecule. Generally, the ratio of labeled to unlabeledbiomolecule is directly proportional to the metabolism of thebiomolecule. Suitable methods for the detection of labeled and unlabeledbiomolecules can and will vary according to the biomolecule under studyand the type of labeled moiety used to label it. If the biomolecule ofinterest is a protein and the labeled moiety is a non-radioactivelylabeled amino acid, then the method of detection typically should besensitive enough to detect changes in mass of the labeled protein withrespect to the unlabeled protein. In a preferred embodiment, massspectrometry is used to detect differences in mass between the labeledand unlabeled proteins. In one embodiment, gas chromatography massspectrometry is used. In an alternate embodiment, MALDI-TOF massspectrometry is used. In a preferred embodiment, high-resolution tandemmass spectrometry is used.

Additional techniques may be utilized to separate the protein ofinterest from other proteins and biomolecules in the biological sample.As an example, immunoprecipitation may be used to isolate and purify theprotein of interest before it is analyzed by mass spectrometry.Alternatively, mass spectrometers having chromatography setups may beused to isolate proteins without immunoprecipitation, and then theprotein of interest may be measured directly. In an exemplaryembodiment, the protein of interest is immunoprecipitated and thenanalyzed by a liquid chromatography system interfaced with a tandem MSunit equipped with an electrospray ionization source (LC-ESI-tandem MS).

The invention also provides that multiple proteins or peptides in thesame biological sample may be measured simultaneously. That is, both theamount of unlabeled and labeled protein (and/or peptide) may be detectedand measured separately or at the same time for multiple proteins. Assuch, the invention provides a useful method for screening changes insynthesis and clearance of proteins on a large scale (i.e.proteomics/metabolomics) and provides a sensitive means to detect andmeasure proteins involved in the underlying pathophysiology.Alternatively, the invention also provides a means to measure multipletypes of biomolecules. In this context, for example, a protein and acarbohydrate may be measured simultaneously or sequentially.

(g) Metabolism Analysis

Once the amount of labeled and unlabeled biomolecule has been detectedin a biological sample, the ratio or percent of labeled biomolecule maybe determined. If the biomolecule of interest is a protein and theamount of labeled and unlabeled protein has been measured in abiological sample, then the ratio of labeled to unlabeled protein may becalculated. Protein metabolism (synthesis rate, clearance rate, lagtime, half-life, etc.) may be calculated from the ratio of labeled tounlabeled protein over time. There are many suitable ways to calculatethese parameters. The invention allows measurement of the labeled andunlabeled protein (or peptide) at the same time, so that the ratio oflabeled to unlabeled protein, as well as other calculations, may bemade. Those of skill in the art will be familiar with the first orderkinetic models of labeling that may be used with the method of theinvention. For example, the fractional synthesis rate (FSR) may becalculated. The FSR equals the initial rate of increase of labeled tounlabeled protein divided by the precursor enrichment. Likewise, thefractional clearance rate (FCR) may be calculated. In addition, otherparameters, such as lag time and isotopic tracer steady state, may bedetermined and used as measurements of the protein's metabolism andphysiology. Also, modeling may be performed on the data to fit multiplecompartment models to estimate transfer between compartments. Of course,the type of mathematical modeling chosen will depend on the individualprotein synthetic and clearance parameters (e.g., one-pool, multiplepools, steady state, non-steady-state, compartmental modeling, etc.).

The invention provides that the synthesis of protein is typically basedupon the rate of increase of the labeled/unlabeled protein ratio overtime (i.e., the slope, the exponential fit curve, or a compartmentalmodel fit defines the rate of protein synthesis). For thesecalculations, a minimum of one sample is typically required (one couldestimate the baseline label), two are preferred, and multiple samplesare more preferred to calculate an accurate curve of the uptake of thelabel into the protein (i.e., the synthesis rate).

Conversely, after the administration of labeled amino acid isterminated, the rate of decrease of the ratio of labeled to unlabeledprotein typically reflects the clearance rate of that protein. For thesecalculations, a minimum of one sample is typically required (one couldestimate the baseline label), two are preferred, and multiple samplesare more preferred to calculate an accurate curve of the decrease of thelabel from the protein over time (i.e., the clearance rate). The amountof labeled protein in a biological sample at a given time reflects thesynthesis rate (i.e., production) or the clearance rate (i.e., removalor destruction) and is usually expressed as percent per hour or themass/time (e.g., mg/hr) of the protein in the subject.

In an exemplary embodiment, as illustrated in the examples, the in vivometabolism of amyloid-β (Aβ) is measured by administering labeledleucine to a subject over 9 hours and collecting biological samples atregular intervals over 36 hours. The biological sample may be collectedfrom blood plasma or CSF. The amount of labeled and unlabeled Aβ in thebiological samples is typically determined by immunopreciptitationfollowed by LC-ESI-tandem MS. From these measurements, the ratio oflabeled to unlabeled Aβ may be determined, and this ratio permits thedetermination of metabolism parameters, such as rate of synthesis andrate of clearance of Aβ.

II. Kits for Diagnosing or Monitoring the Progression or Treatment ofNeurological and Neurodegenerative Diseases

The current invention provides kits for diagnosing or monitoring theprogression or treatment of a neurological or neurodegenerative diseaseby measuring the in vivo metabolism of a central nervous system-derivedprotein in a subject. Generally, a kit comprises a labeled amino acid,means for administering the labeled amino acid, means for collectingbiological samples over time, and instructions for detecting anddetermining the ratio of labeled to unlabeled protein so that ametabolic index may be calculated. The metabolic index then may becompared to a metabolic index of a normal, healthy individual orcompared to a metabolic index from the same subject generated at anearlier time. These comparisons may enable a practitioner to predict theadvent of a neurological or neurodegenerative disease, diagnose theonset of a neurological or neurodegenerative disease, monitor theprogression of a neurological or neurodegenerative disease, or verifythe effectiveness of a treatment for a neurological or neurodegenerativedisease. In a preferred embodiment, the kit comprises ¹³C₆-leucine or¹³C₆-phenylalanine, the protein to be labeled is Aβ, and the disease tobe assessed is AD.

Definitions

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the meaning commonly understood by a person skilled in the art towhich this invention belongs. The following references provide one ofskill with a general definition of many of the terms used in thisinvention: Singleton et al., Dictionary of Microbiology and MolecularBiology (2nd ed. 1994); The Cambridge Dictionary of Science andTechnology (Walker ed., 1988); The Glossary of Genetics, 5th Ed., R.Rieger et al. (eds.), Springer Verlag (1991); and Hale & Marham, TheHarper Collins Dictionary of Biology (1991). As used herein, thefollowing terms have the meanings ascribed to them unless specifiedotherwise.

“Clearance rate” refers to the rate at which the biomolecule of interestis removed.

“Fractional clearance rate” or FCR is calculated as the natural log ofthe ratio of labeled biomolecule over a specified period of time.

“Fractional synthesis rate” or FSR is calculated as the slope of theincreasing ratio of labeled biomolecule over a specified period of timedivided by the predicted steady state value of the labeled precursor.

“Isotope” refers to all forms of a given element whose nuclei have thesame atomic number but have different mass numbers because they containdifferent numbers of neutrons. By way of a non-limiting example, ¹²C and¹³C are both stable isotopes of carbon.

“Lag time” generally refers to the delay of time from when thebiomolecule is first labeled until the labeled biomolecule is detected.

“Metabolism” refers to any combination of the synthesis, transport,breakdown, modification, or clearance rate of a biomolecule.

“Metabolic index” refers to a measurement comprising the fractionalsynthesis rate (FSR) and the fractional clearance rate (FCR) of thebiomolecule of interest. Comparison of metabolic indices from normal anddiseased individuals may aid in the diagnosis or monitoring ofneurological or neurodegenerative diseases.

“Neurally derived cells” includes all cells within theblood-brain-barrier including neurons, astrocytes, microglia, choroidplexus cells, ependymal cells, other glial cells, etc.

“Steady state” refers to a state during which there is insignificantchange in the measured parameter over a specified period of time.

“Synthesis rate” refers to the rate at which the biomolecule of interestis synthesized.

In metabolic tracer studies, a “stable isotope” is a nonradioactiveisotope that is less abundant than the most abundant naturally occurringisotope.

“Subject” as used herein means a living organism having a centralnervous system. In particular, the subject is a mammal. Suitablesubjects include research animals, companion animals, farm animals, andzoo animals. The preferred subject is a human.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodimentsof the invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the artthat the techniques disclosed in the examples that follow representtechniques discovered by the inventors to function well in the practiceof the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute preferredmodes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, inlight of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can bemade in the specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain alike or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope ofthe invention.

Example 1 Measurement of Amyloid-β Metabolism In Vitro Rationale

Biochemical, genetic, and animal model evidence implicates Aβ (FIG. 1)as a pathogenic peptide in AD. In order to develop a method to measureAβ in vivo labeling, an in vitro system was designed using four basicsteps: 1) label Aβ in vitro in culture, 2) isolate Aβ from other labeledproteins, 3) specifically cleave Aβ into fragments that could beanalyzed for the label, and 4) quantitate the labeled and unlabeledfragments.

Amyloid-β Immunoprecipitation and Cleavage

First, a method was developed for isolating and measuring unlabeled Aβfrom biologic fluids. Aβ was immunoprecipitated from samples of CSF orcell culture media using a highly specific monoclonal antibody (m266),which recognizes the central domain (residues 13-28) of the molecules.Antibody beads were prepared by covalently binding m266 antibody to CNBrsepharose beads per the manufacturers protocol at a concentration of 10mg/ml of m266 antibody. The antibody beads were stored at 4° C. in aslurry of 50% PBS and 0.02% azide. The immunoprecipitation mixture was250 μl of 5× RIPA, 12.5 μl of 100× protease inhibitors, and 30 μl ofantibody-bead slurry in an Eppendorf tube. To this, 1 ml of thebiological sample was added and the tube was rotated overnight at 4° C.The beads were rinsed once with 1× RIPA and twice with 25 mM ammoniumbicarbonate. They were aspirated dry after the final rinse and Aβ waseluted off the antibody-bead complex using 30 μl of pure formic acid. Aβwas directly characterized (molecular weight and amino acid sequence)using mass spectrometry. Results were similar to previously publishedfindings (Wang et al. 1996, J Biol. Chem. 271(50): 31894-31902), asshown in FIG. 2.

Amyloid-β may be cleaved into smaller fragments by enzymatic digestionusing trypsin. Cleavage of Aβ by trypsin produces the Aβ₁₋₅, Aβ₆₋₁₆,Aβ₁₇₋₂₈, and Aβ_(29-40/42) fragments, as depicted in FIG. 1.

Labeling of Amyloid-β

Second, a method was developed to label newly synthesized Aβ.¹³C₆-leucine was used as a metabolic label because leucine equilibratesacross the blood brain barrier quickly via active transport (Smith etal. 1987, J Neurochem 49(5): 1651-1658), is an essential amino acid,does not change the properties of Aβ, and is safe and nonradioactive.¹³C stable isotopes do not change the chemical or biologic properties ofamino acids or proteins; only the mass weight is increased by one Daltonfor each ¹³C label. In fact, entire organisms have been grown on pure¹³C without any deleterious effect. The labeled leucine is incorporatedinto the amino acid sequence of Aβ at positions 17 and 34 (see FIG. 1).

The naturally occurring isotopes ¹³C (1.1% of all carbon) and ¹⁵N causea natural distribution of mass of larger molecules, including proteins.Due to the size of Aβ and the presence of these naturally occurringisotopes, the peptide may be broken into smaller peptides for directmeasurement of the label. Alternatively, separation may be made usingwhole undigested Aβ.

Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry

Third, a method to accurately quantitate labeled and unlabeled Aβ wasdeveloped. For this, a Waters (Milford, Mass.) capillary liquidchromatography system with auto injector was interfaced to aThermo-Finnigan (San Jose, Calif.) LCQ-DECA equipped with anelectrospray ionization source (LC-ESI-tandem MS). A 5 μl aliquot ofeach sample was injected onto a Vydac C-18 capillary column (0.3×150 mmMS 5 μm column). The Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ fragment contains one leucine residue andincorporation of ¹³C₆-leucine shifts the molecular weight of thefragment by 6 Daltons. In positive-ion scanning mode, LC-ESI-MS analysisof trypsin-digested synthetic and immunoprecipitated Aβ yielded theexpected parent ions at masses 1325.2 for Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ and 1331.2 for¹³C₆-leucine labeled Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ (FIGS. 3A and 3B). The percent of labeledAβ (Aβ*) was calculated as the ratio of all labeled MS/MS ions fromlabeled Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ divided by all unlabeled MS/MS ions from unlabeledAβ_(17-28.) A custom Microsoft Excel spreadsheet with macros was used tocalculate the ratio as the tracer to tracee ratio (TTR) of Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ bythe following formula:

${TTR}_{A\; \beta} = \frac{\sum{{{MS}/{MS}}\mspace{14mu} {ions}\mspace{14mu} A\; \beta_{17 - 28}^{*}}}{\sum{{{MS}/{MS}}\mspace{14mu} {ions}\mspace{14mu} A\; \beta_{17 - 28}^{\;}}}$

It was concluded that this method provided a highly specific“fingerprint” of the Aβ in both labeled and unlabeled forms, as itquantitated the amounts of each form and determined the amino acidsequence at the same time. In this way, excellent separation andspecificity of the labeled to unlabeled Aβ peptide was achieved.Accuracy and precision were tested by generating a standard curve fromserial dilutions of labeled and unlabeled culture media (FIG. 4). Thelinear fit from a range of 0% to 80% labeled Aβ serial dilution standardcurve gave an R² of 0.98 and slope of 0.92. Alternative measuringtechniques that were evaluated included measuring parent ions directlyin selective ion mode only and also using a MALDI-TOF mass spectrometer.However, these methods were unable to offer the sensitivity andspecificity that was achieved by the LC-ESI using quantitative tandemmass spectrum analysis.

Amyloid-β In Vitro Labeling

Human neuroglioma cells that produce Aβ (Murphy et al. 2000, J Biol.Chem. 275(34): 26277-26284) were grown in the presence of ¹³C₆-labeledleucine (Cambridge Isotope Laboratories, Cambridge, Mass.) or unlabeledleucine. Aβ was isolated from the media by immunoprecipitation with m266antibody (see above). The eluted Aβ was digested with trypsin for 4hours at 37° C., and the fragments were analyzed by LC-ESI MS. Asexpected, the Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ fragment of Aβ isolated from cells incubated inthe presence of unlabeled leucine had a molecular weight of 1325.2 andthe Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ fragment of Aβ isolated from ¹³C₆-labeled leucine incubatedcells had a molecular weight of 1331.2 (FIG. 3B). These findingsindicate that the cells incorporated ¹³C₆-leucine into Aβ, confirmingthat Aβ synthesized in the presence of ¹³C₆-leucine incorporates thelabeled amino acid and that the shift of 6 Daltons in the molecularweight of the leucine-containing peptide can be distinguished using massspectrometry.

Cell culture media at 4 hours and 24 hours of ¹³C₆-leucine labeling wereanalyzed to determine the relative amount of labeling that occurs as afunction of time. The 4-hour labeling experiment revealed approximately70% labeling, while the 24-hour labeling experiment revealed more than95% labeling. These findings indicate that within hours after exposureto the label, amyloid precursor protein (APP) incorporated the labeledamino acid, and the labeled Aβ was cleaved from labeled APP and releasedinto the extracellular space.

Example 2 Measurement of Amyloid-β Metabolism In Vivo Rationale

Protein production and clearance are important parameters that aretightly regulated and reflect normal physiology as well as diseasestates. Previous studies of protein metabolism in humans have focused onwhole body or peripheral body proteins, but not on proteins produced inthe central nervous system (CNS). No methods were previously availableto quantify protein synthesis or clearance rates in the CNS of humans.Such a method would be valuable to assess not only Aβ synthesis orclearance rates in humans but also the metabolism of a variety otherproteins relevant to diseases of the CNS. In order to address criticalquestions about underlying AD pathogenesis and Aβ metabolism, a methodfor quantifying Aβ fractional synthesis rate (FSR) and fractionalclearance rate (FCR) in vivo in the CNS of humans was developed.

Participants and Sampling

All human studies were approved by the Washington University HumanStudies Committee and the General Clinical Research Center (GCRC)Advisory Committee. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.All participants were screened to be in good general health and withoutneurologic disease. Seven men and three women (23-45 yrs old)participated. Each research participant was admitted to the GCRC at 7:00AM after an overnight fast from 8 PM the preceding evening. The GCRCResearch Kitchen provided meals (60% carbohydrate, 20% fat, 20% protein,low leucine diet during labeled leucine infusion) at 9 AM, 1 PM, and 6PM and the participant had free access to water. All food and waterconsumption was recorded during the admission by nursing staff and theGCRC kitchen. One intravenous catheter was placed in an antecubital veinand used to administer the stable isotope labeled leucine solution. Asecond intravenous catheter was placed in the contra-lateral antecubitalvein to obtain blood samples. A subarachnoid catheter was inserted atthe L3-L4 interspace via a Touhy needle, so that CSF could be sampledwithout performing multiple lumbar punctures (Williams, 2002, Neurology58: 1859-1860). The intravenous catheters were placed by trainedregistered nurses and the lumbar catheter was placed by trainedphysicians with extensive experience in inserting catheters into thelumbar subarachnoid space. Blood samples were obtained hourly, unlessthe study was 36 hours, in which case, blood was obtained hourly for thefirst 16 hours and every other hour thereafter. CSF samples wereobtained hourly throughout the study. See the schematic of the in vivoexperimental protocol presented in FIG. 5. The participants wereencouraged to stay in bed except to use the restroom.

¹³C₆-leucine (Cambridge Isotope Laboratories) was dissolved in medicalgrade normal saline and then filtered through a 0.22 micron filter theday before each study. The labeled leucine was infused intravenouslyusing a medical IV pump at a rate of 1.8 to 2.5 mg/kg/hr.

In Vivo Labeling and Quantitation of Aβ in one Participant

To determine if labeled Aβ could be produced and detected in vivo in ahuman, a single participant underwent a 24-hour infusion of labeledleucine followed by a lumbar puncture to obtain CSF. ¹³C₆-labeledleucine was infused at a rate of 1.8 mg/kg/hr in one IV. Every hour, 10ml of plasma was obtained through the other IV. After 24 hours ofcontinuous infusion, a single lumbar puncture was performed and 30 ml ofCSF was obtained. Aβ was immunoprecipitated from the CSF sample,digested with trypsin, and a 5 μl aliquot of each sample was injectedinto a Vydac C-18 capillary column (0.3×150 mm MS 5 μm). In positive-ionscanning mode, LC-ESI-MS analysis of trypsin-digested synthetic andimmunoprecipitated Aβ yielded the expected parent ions at masses 1325.2for Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ and 1331.2 for ¹³C₆-leucine labeled Aβ₁₇₋₂₈. To obtain aminoacid sequence and abundance data, these parent ions were subjected tocollision induced dissociation (CID 28%), and tandem MS analysis oftheir doubly-charged species ([M+2H]⁺²; m/z 663.6 and 666.6) werescanned in selected reaction monitoring mode (SRM), so that the y- andb-series ions generated were used for isotope ratio quantitation (FIG.6). In addition, plasma and CSF ¹³C₆-leucine were measured to determinethe maximum amount of ¹³C₆-leucine Aβ to be expected. The resultsdemonstrated that unlabeled Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ and ¹³C-labeled Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ could bedetected and measured in human CSF.

The results of the first human participant demonstrated threesignificant findings: 1) plasma ¹³C₆-leucine averaged 12% of totalplasma leucine at an IV infusion rate of 1.8 mg/kg/hour; 2) CSF¹³C₆-leucine was measured in CSF demonstrating a similar level (11.9%)as plasma at 24 hours; and 3) Aβ was labeled with ¹³C₆-leucine in humanCSF at approximately 8% of total Aβ levels at 24 hours.

In order to quantify the accuracy and precision of the measurementtechnique of in vivo labeled Aβ in human CSF, a standard curve wasgenerated from serial dilutions of labeled and unlabeled human CSF (FIG.7). The measurement technique was the same as for the in vitro standardcurve (FIG. 4). LC-ESI MS was used to quantitate the amounts of labeledand unlabeled Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ in selective ion monitoring mode with tandem massspectrometer recording MS-2 ions. The linear fit from a range of 0% to8% labeled Aβ serial dilution standard curve gave an R² of 0.98 andslope of 0.81. From these data, it was predicted that in vivo samplesfrom human participants will likely range from 1 to 10% labeling. Note,the 1% measurement in unlabeled CSF at the Y-axis, whereas 0% waspredicted. Due to the baseline noise of the detection system, it was notpossible to measure less than 1% labeling with this system. It wasconcluded that Aβ can be labeled in vivo in humans and measured withgood accuracy and precision using LC-ESI mass spectrometry.

Pharmacokinetics of In Vivo Labeling

To ensure that detectable ¹³C₆-leucine labeling of Aβ was achieved andmaintained for an adequate period of time so that steady-state equationscould be used to calculate Aβ synthesis and clearance rates, the optimallabeling and sampling times were determined. A range of ¹³C₆-leucineintravenous infusion dosages (1.8 to 2.5 mg/kg/hr), durations (6, 9, or12 hours) and CSF/blood sampling times (from 12 to 36 hours duration)were tested (see Table 1).

TABLE 1 Participant Labeling and Sampling Parameters ParticipantInfusion Dosage Infusion CSF/blood Number (mg/kg/hr) Duration, hourssampling, hours 1 1.8 24 hours  1 time at 24 hours 2 1.9 12 hours  24hours 3 2.5 12 hours  13 hours 4 2.5 9 hours 24 hours 5 2.4 6 hours  6hours 6 2 6 hours 36 hours 7 2 6 hours 36 hours 8 2 9 hours 36 hours 9 29 hours 36 hours 10 2 9 hours 36 hours

Aβ metabolic labeling curves of three participants are presented in FIG.8. ¹³C₆-labeled leucine was infused through one IV at a rate of 1.9(circles), 2.5 (triangles), or 2.5 (squares) mg/kg/hr for 12 (circles,triangles) or 9 (squares) hours. Each hour, 10 ml of plasma and 6 ml ofCSF were obtained through the other IV and the lumbar catheter,respectively. There was a 5-hour lag time before significant rises inlabeled Aβ was detected. This was followed by a 9 (squares) or 12(triangles or circles) hour increase in labeled AR until it plateauedfor another 5 hours. The 9 hours of labeling (squares) had decreasinglevels of labeled Aβ for the last 3 hours, while 12 hours of labeling(triangles or circles) did not show a decrease in labeled Aβ.

Additional studies revealed that labeled Aβ could be reliably quantifiedafter 9 or 12 hours of label infusion, but not after 6 hours of labelinfusion. The synthesis portion of a labeling curve could be determinedin the first 12 hours of sampling; however, the clearance portion of thelabeling curve could only be determined with 36 hours of sampling. Basedon these results, optimal labeling parameters for Aβ were defined to be9 hours of IV infusion of the label and 36 hours of sample collection.These parameters allowed for assessment of both the fractional synthesisrate (FSR) and fractional clearance rate (FCR) portions of a labelingcurve.

In Vivo Labeling Protocol

In the last three participants, ¹³C₆-labeled leucine was administeredwith an initial bolus of 2 mg/kg over 10 minutes to reach a steady stateof labeled leucine, followed by 9 hours of continuous intravenousinfusion at a rate of 2 mg/kg/hr. Blood and CSF were sampled for 36hours in the last 3 participants. Serial samples of 12 ml blood and 6 mlCSF were taken at one or two hour time intervals. CSF has a productionrate of ˜20 ml per hour (Fishman R A, 1992, Cerebrospinal fluid indiseases of the nervous system, Saunders, Philadelphia) in a normalsized adult and replenishes itself throughout the procedure. Over a36-hour study, the total amount of blood collected was 312 ml and thetotal amount of CSF collected was 216 ml.

There were a total of 10 participants enrolled in the study, with 8completing the predefined protocols and 2 studies stopped beforecompletion due to post-lumbar puncture headache associated with thestudy (see Table 1). Two of the 8 completed studies had a 6 hour labeledleucine infusion, and labeled Aβ levels in these 2 participants were toolow to accurately measure and were not used for analysis. Thus, thefindings from the remaining 6 studies are reported below.

Labeled Leucine Quantitation

Plasma and CSF samples were analyzed to determine the amount of labeledleucine present in each fluid (FIG. 9). The labeled to unlabeled leucineratios for plasma and CSF ¹³C₆-leucine were quantified using capillarygas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) (Yarasheski et al. 2005, AmJ Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 288: E278-284; Yarasheski et al. 1998 Am JPhysiol. 275: E577-583), which is more appropriate than LC-ESI-MS forlow mass amino acid analysis. The ¹³C₆-leucine reached steady statelevels of 14% and 10% in both plasma and CSF, respectively, within anhour. This confirmed that leucine was rapidly transported across theblood-brain-barrier via known neutral amino acid transporter systems(Smith et al. 1987 J Neurochem. 49(5): 1651-1658).

Labeled Aβ Dynamics

For each hourly sample of CSF collected, the ratio of labeled tounlabeled Aβ was determined by immunoprecipitation-MS/MS, as describedabove. The MS/MS ions from ¹³C₆-labeled Aβ₁₇ ₋₂₈were divided by theMS/MS ions from unlabeled Aβ₁₇₋₂₈ to produce a ratio of labeled Aβ tounlabeled Aβ (see TTR formula, above). The mean labeled Aβ ratio andstandard error (n=6) of each time point are shown in FIG. 10. There wasno measurable labeled Aβ for the first 4 hours, followed by an increasefrom 5 to 13 hours. There was no significant change from 13 to 24 hours.The labeled Aβ decreased from 24 to 36 hours.

Calculation of FSR and FCR:

The fractional synthesis rate (FSR) was calculated using the standardformula, presented below:

${FSR} = {{\frac{\left( {E_{t\; 2} - E_{t\; 1}} \right)_{A\; \beta}}{\left( {t_{2} - t_{1}} \right)} \div {Precursor}}\mspace{14mu} E}$

Where (E_(t2)−E_(t1))_(Aβ)/(t₂−t₁) is defined as the slope of labeled Aβduring labeling and the Precursor E is the ratio of labeled leucine.FSR, in percent per hour, was operationally defined as the slope of thelinear regression from 6 to 15 hours divided by the average of CSF¹³C₆-labeled leucine level during infusion (see FIG. 11A-C). Forexample, a FSR of 7.6% per hour means that 7.6% of total Aβ was producedeach hour.

The fractional clearance rate (FCR) was calculated by fitting the slopeof the natural logarithm of the clearance portion of the labeled Aβcurve, according to the following formula:

${FCR} = {\ln \left( \frac{\Delta \; {TTR}_{A\; \beta}}{\Delta \; {{time}({hours})}_{24 - 36}} \right)}$

The FCR was operationally defined as the natural log of the labeled Aβfrom 24 to 36 hours (FIG. 11D-F). For example, a FCR of 8.3% per hourmeans that 8.3% of total Aβ was cleared each hour. The average FSR of Aβfor these 6 healthy young participants was 7.6%/hr and the average FCRwas 8.3%/hr (FIG. 12). These values were not statistically differentfrom each other.

Example 3 A Technique To Measure Percent Labeled Aβ in Plasma Rationale

Plasma Aβ metabolism likely occurs in a separate compartment withdifferent metabolism rates compared to CSF. However, a significantamount of plasma Aβ is probably derived from the CNS. In a mouse modelof AD, the amount of Aβ captured by an antibody in the plasma, predictedCNS pathology of neurally derived Aβ. Therefore, the metabolism rate ofAβ in plasma may be a defining feature of pathology in AD. In addition,plasma Aβ metabolism may be an equally effective method of measuring Aβmetabolism in humans compared to CSF. If it proves to be diagnostic orpredictive of dementia, this method may be more viable as a diagnostictest of pre-clinical or clinical AD.

Experimental Design

As was done for CSF in the prior examples, a method can be developed tomeasure labeled and unlabeled Aβ in plasma. There are two majordifferences in obtaining Aβ from plasma compared to CSF: 1) there is˜100× less Aβ in plasma and 2) there is approximately a 200× increase innon-Aβ protein concentration. The efficiency and specificity of theimmunoprecipitation may have to be optimized using methods known to oneof skill in the art. The immunoprecipitations can be tested by analysiswith a Linear Trap Quadrapole (LTQ) mass spectrometer to identifynumbers and relative amounts of contaminating proteins. The LTQ providesup to a 200-fold increase in sensitivity over LC-ESI. Preliminaryresults indicate that it has excellent signal to noise ratio at 50 folddilution of Aβ fragments from 1 ml of human CSF.

Testing of the optimized methods can be done with 5-10 ml of plasma.Labeled and unlabeled Aβ can by immunoprecipitated, digested withtrypsin, and analyzed by mass spectrometry. Labeled plasma samples fromsubjects can be used to detect and generate plasma labeling standardcurves. The sample with the most labeling can be used to create 5samples by serial dilution. The labeled Aβ can be quantitated by the LTQin parent ions and tandem mass spectrometry ions, and the results cangenerate a standard curve. From this curve, the linearity andvariability can be determined by a linear fit model. This standard curvecan be compared to the standard curve generated for the human CSF Aβlabeling. Labeled plasma Aβ curves can be compared to labeled CSF curvesfrom control versus AD individuals to determine if plasma levels of Aβcan detect or predict AD.

Results

As in data for CSF (see Examples 1 and 2), it is expected that atechnique can be developed that can provide reproducible andquantitative measurements of labeled and unlabeled Aβ from human plasma.The standard curves are expected to be near linear and with lowvariability. It is expected that the plasma labeled Aβ curves from humanin vivo studies should closely reflect the CNS/CSF labeled Aβ curves.FSR and FCR of plasma Aβ from participants can also be generated. It isexpected that the clearance rates of Aβ in plasma will be much quickerthan in the CSF, as has been shown in animal models after Aβ infusioninto plasma.

Alternative Approaches

If labeled and unlabeled plasma Aβ cannot be accurately measured asdetailed above, then increased sample per time point with fewer timepoints may be used (20 ml every other hour as opposed to 10 ml everyhour). This would decrease temporal resolution of the measurements, butmay be still sufficient to generate FSR and FCR. If proteincontamination is still be a problem with plasma, then purification byHPLC, protein 2D gel, or even more stringent rinse steps familiar tothose of skill in the art may be necessary.

The LTQ is a sensitive mass spectrometer commercially available andprovides a very good opportunity to generate measurements based onattomole amounts. There are no better alternatives to this massspectrometer at present; however, mass spectrometry sensitivity isconstantly improving with technology improvements. Those of skill in theart will recognize that the use of such improvements in massspectrometry is within the scope and spirit of the current invention.

Example 4 Determination of the Effect of ApoE Genotype on CSF AβMetabolism Rationale

ApoE genotype is a well-validated genetic risk factor for AD.Immunohistochemical studies revealed that ApoE co-localized toextracellular amyloid deposits in AD. Furthermore, ApoE ε4 genotype wasfound to be a risk factor for AD in human populations. The ApoE ε2allele has been shown to be protective in the risk of AD. ApoE genotypehas also been shown to dramatically effect changes in AD pathology inseveral mouse models of AD (Holtzman et al. 2000 PNAS 97(2892); Faganeta l. 2002 Neurobiol. Dis 9 (305); Fryer et al. 2005 J Neurosci 25(2803))

ApoE ε4 dose dependently increases the density of Aβ deposits in AD andin cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). ApoE is associated with soluble Aβin CSF, plasma and in normal and AD brain. It is likely that ApoE4 isassociated with AD and CAA through the common mechanism of influencingAβ metabolism, although ApoE4 has been shown to be involved in a varietyof other pathways.

ApoE isoform has been shown to cause dose and allele dependent changesin time of onset of Aβ deposition and distribution of Aβ deposition inmouse models of AD (Holtzman et al., 2000, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97:2892-2897; DeMattos et al. 2004, Neuron 41(2): 193-202). Human ApoE3 wasshown to cause a dose dependent decrease in Aβ deposition. In addition,clearance studies have shown that Aβ transport from the CNS to plasmahas a t_(1/2) of <30 minutes, which is decreased without ApoE. Together,this suggests that ApoE has Aβ binding and clearance effects on CNS Aβ.

Experimental Design and Analysis

ApoE genotype can be determined in each participant. The Buffy coat(white blood cell layer) from centrifuged plasma can be collected andimmediately frozen at −80° C. using standard techniques known to thoseof skill in the art. The ApoE genotype of the sample is determined byPCR analysis (Talbot et al. 1994, Lancet 343(8910): 1432-1433). Theeffect of gene dose of ApoE2 (0, 1, or 2 copies) and ApoE4 (0, 1, or 2copies) can be analyzed with the continuous variable of CSF or plasmaFSR or FCR of Aβ metabolism.

Methods for statistical analysis can be made using standard techniquesknown to those of skill in the art. For example, for the FSR and FCR ofAβ, a two-way or three-way ANOVA can be performed with human ApoEisoform and age as factors in the control group and also in the ADgroup. If the data are not normally distributed, a transformation can beutilized to meet necessary statistical assumptions regarding Gaussiandistributions.

Results

It is expected that ApoE4 can decrease clearance of Aβ compared to ApoE3in the CNS. Conversely, ApoE2 is expected to increase clearance of Aβcompared to ApoE3 in the CNS. A change in synthesis rate of Aβ based onApoE genotype is not expected. If changes in Aβ metabolism are detected,this would be evidence of the effect of ApoE status on in vivo Aβmetabolism in humans.

Example 5 Comparison of the ApoE Genotype to Human Plasma Aβ FSR and FCRMetabolism Rationale

Transport of Aβ from the CNS to plasma may be affected by ApoE genotype,as demonstrated in mouse models of AD. Measurement of this effect inhumans may reveal transport changes via ApoE.

In vivo animal data has shown there are different clearance rates of Aβin plasma vs. CSF vs. brain. The cause of these differences and therelationship between them is not well understood. It is likely that ApoEgenotype expression plays a significant role in the transport andclearance of Aβ from the CNS to the CSF and the plasma. ApoE in the CNSis mostly produced by astrocytes and is sialylated and is structurallydifferent compared to plasma Aβ. To better understand the relationshipbetween these compartments as a function of ApoE genotype, the techniquefrom Example 3 can be used to measure the metabolism of Aβ in plasma.

Experimental Design and Analysis

ApoE genotype can be determined in each participant. The Buffy coat(white blood cell layer) from centrifuged plasma can be collected andimmediately frozen at −80° C. using standard techniques known to thoseof skill in the art. The sample can be analyzed using the technique usedin Example 4. The effect of gene dose of ApoE2 (0, 1, or 2 copies) andApoE4 (0, 1, or 2 copies) can be analyzed to the continuous variable ofFSR or FCR of plasma Aβ metabolism. Methods for statistical analysis canbe made using standard techniques known to those of skill in the art andas described above in Example 4.

Results

It is expected that ApoE4 can decrease the clearance of plasma Aβcompared to ApoE3, and that ApoE2 can increase the clearance of Aβ fromthe plasma compared to ApoE3. A change in synthesis rate of Aβ based onApoE genotype is not expected to be observed. If changes in plasma Aβmetabolism are detected, however, this would be the first assessment ofthe effect of ApoE status on Aβ metabolism in humans.

Alternative Approaches

The relationship between plasma, CSF, and CNS compartments for Aβmetabolism are not well understood. There are changes in the ratios ofAβ in each compartment depending on presence of AD. This indicates adifferential effect in the disturbance of Aβ metabolism betweencompartments. The relationship of peripheral plasma Aβ metabolismcompared to CSF Aβ metabolism may be more complex than just ApoEgenotype dependent. It is likely that not only AD status, but otherfactors may interact to effect this relationship. Therefore, a clearpattern of change in Aβ metabolism may not be dependent on ApoEgenotype.

All of the compositions and methods disclosed and claimed herein can bemade and executed without undue experimentation in light of the presentdisclosure. While the compositions and methods of this invention havebeen described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent tothose of skill in the art that variations may be applied to thecompositions and methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps ofthe method described herein without departing from the concept, spiritand scope of the invention. More specifically, it will be apparent thatcertain agents which are both chemically and physiologically related maybe substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similarresults would be achieved. All such similar substitutes andmodifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to bewithin the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by theclaims.

Example 6 Measurement of ApoE Metabolism In Vivo Rationale

For reasons analogous to those detailed for Example 2, a method forquantifying ApoE FSR and FCR in vivo in the CNS of humans was developed.

Experimental Design and Analysis

As depicted in FIG. 13, human ApoE was immunoprecipitated from CSF orastrocyte cell culture media using WUE4, a specific anti-human ApoEmonoclonal (anti-ApoE) antibody. An immortalized astrocyte cell linefrom transgenic mice expressing human ApoE was used to produce¹³C₆-labeled leucine ApoE standards. Immunoprecipitated ApoE was thendigested with sequencing-grade trypsin. Released peptides were separatedby nano liquid chromatography and quantitated by tandem massspectrometry (nanoLC-MS). The efficiency and selectivity of theimmuno-affinity purification was confirmed by analyzing the samplesfollowing a general proteomics LC-MS method. Results from Bioworks™3.2,using the SEQUEST algorithm, confirmed ApoE was the predominant proteinpresent in samples, and identified the most abundant peptides containingleucines, which could be used for quantitation. Due to the 6 Da massshift of a ¹³C₆-labeled leucine, unlabeled peptides were distinguishablefrom labeled peptides. Tandem MS was performed on the peptides ofinterest, and the percent of ¹³C-leucine incorporated into ApoE wasdetermined by calculating the ratio of labeled product ions to unlabeledproduct ions. A standard curve of ¹³C₆-labeled leucine ApoE from cellculture media is shown in FIG. 14. The excellent linearity from 0-25%labeling (R²=0.99) indicates the method developed to measure ApoE issensitive, specific, and accurate.

In a preliminary experiment, a young normal control participant wasinfused with ¹³C₆-Leucine (Leu) (2 mg/kg/h) from 0-9 hours. CSF wascollected every hour for 36 hours. ApoE was affinity purified from CSF,and analyzed by nanoLC-MS. Percent label was calculated from the ratioof the labeled to unlabeled product ions for ApoE tryptic peptideSWFEPLVEDMQR (FIG. 15). Similar results were observed for a young normalcontrol participant infused with ¹³C₆-Leu (2 mg/kg/h) from 0-9 hours,followed by infusion with ¹³C₆-phenylalanine (Phe) (3 mg/kg/h) from16-25 hours (FIG. 16). Fractional synthetic rate (FSR) was calculatedusing the standard formula, dividing the slope of the linear regressionby the ¹³C-Leu or ¹³C-Phe precursor enrichment in CSF. Precursorenrichment for these participants was determined by gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GCMS).

Results

FSR was shown to be approximately 2 percent per hour in these youngnormal controls (FIG. 15 and FIG. 16). This indicates that approximatelyhalf of the ApoE pool is synthesized in the human brain in about 24hours.

Example 7 Measurement of Soluble Amyloid Precursor Protein Metabolism InVivo Rationale

Analogous to the rationale for Examples 2 and 6, a method forquantifying soluble amyloid precursor protein (sAPP) FSR and FCR in vivoin the CNS of humans was developed.

Experimental Design and Analysis

Similar to the method detailed in Examples 2 and 6, sAPP was labeled inthe CNS of a human subject. Tandem MS was performed on the peptides ofinterest, and the percent of ¹³C₆-leucine incorporated into sAPP wasdetermined by calculating the ratio of labeled product ions to unlabeledproduct ions.

Results

Soluble APP has a much slower production and clearance rate compared toAβ, as indicated by the slower rise to plateau and clearance of labeledsAPP (FIG. 17). This indicates that individual protein turnover ratesare different in the same samples in the same subject.

1. A kit for diagnosing or monitoring the progression or treatment of aneurological or neurodegenerative disease in a subject, the kitcomprising: (a) a labeled amino acid; (b) means for administering thelabeled amino acid to the subject, whereby the labeled amino acid iscapable of crossing the blood brain barrier and incorporating into andlabeling a protein as the protein is being synthesized in the centralnervous system of the subject; (c) means for obtaining a biologicalsample at regular time intervals from the subject, the biological samplecomprising a labeled protein fraction and an unlabeled protein fraction;and (d) instructions for detecting and determining the ratio of labeledto unlabeled protein over time so that a metabolic index may becalculated, whereby the metabolic index may be compared to the metabolicindex of a normal, healthy individual or compared to a metabolic indexfrom the same subject generated at an earlier time, wherein the proteinis selected from the group consisting of amyloid-beta, apolipoprotein E,apolipoprotein J, synuclein, soluble amyloid precursor protein, Tau,alpha-2 macroglobulin, S100B, myelin basic protein, an interleukin, andTNF.
 2. The kit of claim 1, wherein the neurological orneurodegenerative disease is selected from the group consisting ofAlzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, stroke, frontal temporaldementias (FTDs), Huntington's Disease, progressive supranuclear palsy(PSP), corticobasal degeneration (CBD), aging-related disorders anddementias, Multiple Sclerosis, Prion Diseases, Lewy Body Disease, andAmyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.
 3. The kit of claim 1, wherein theprotein synthesized is from a neuronal cell, glial cell, or other cellin the central nervous system.
 4. The kit of claim 1, wherein thelabeled amino acid has a radioactive or a non-radioactive atom.
 5. Thekit of claim 4, wherein the non-radioactive atom is selected from thegroup consisting of 2H, 13C, 15N, 17O, 18O, 33S, 34S, and 36S.
 6. Thekit of claim 1, wherein the amino acid is leucine, the non-radioactiveatom is 13C, and the protein is amyloid-beta.
 7. The kit of claim 1,wherein the labeled amino acid is administered to the subjectintravenously, intra-arterially, subcutaneously, intraperitoneally,intramuscularly, or orally.
 8. The kit of claim 1, wherein thebiological sample is cerebral spinal fluid.
 9. The kit of claim 1,wherein the ratio of labeled protein to unlabeled protein is determinedfrom the amounts of labeled and unlabeled protein detected by massspectrometry.
 10. The kit of claim 1, wherein the metabolic indexcomprises the fractional synthesis rate (FSR) and the fractionalclearance rate (FCR).
 11. The kit of claim 1, wherein the mammal is ahuman.